Index

1) Introduction to Media: 10 questions
2) Media consumption audit
3) Semiotics blog tasks - English analysis and Icon, Index, Symbol
4) Language: Reading an image - advert analyses
5) Reception theory - advert analyses part 2
6) Genre: Factsheets and genre study questions
7) Blog feedback and learner response
8)Psychographics
9)Audience Theory 2
10)Factsheet - Audience theory
11) LR
12) Audience theory 1 - Hypodermic needle/Two-step flow/U&G
13) Audience theory 2 - The effects debate - Bandura, Cohen
14) Industries: Ownership and Control
15) Industries: Hesmondhalgh - The Cultural Industries
16) Industries: Public Service Broadcasting
17) Industries: Regulation

Media Regulation

1) What is regulation and why do media industries need to be regulated?

Very few industries leave the organisations or companies who operate in that sector to their own devices. Systems of regulation are required to provide rules and regulations to ensure that organisations operate
fairly. In the media industry there are several regulatory bodies that exist to monitor the way that their industries work. Broadcast media (TV and Radio) are regulated by OFCOM – the OFfice of COMmunication
and the advertising industry is regulated by the Advertising StandardsAuthority. Newspapers are currently regulated by the Independent Press Standards Organisation, which replaced the discredited Press Press Complaints Comission in 2014. Although the purpose of these bodies have some similarities, they way they operate is quite different in order to suit the needs of the industry they regulate. Regulators also provide somebody for audiences to complain to if they see something they don’t like. If you are offended by a TV show, feel that an advert is making claims that are unrealistic or a newspaper has invaded your privacy, the regulator is somebody you can turn to to take up your complaint. However, how effectivy different regulators are in carrying out these functions is a source of constant debate. Regulators must provide a set of tough consequences for media organisations that break the rules, but they do also need to balance the interests of media producers and protect freedom of expression.

2) What is OFCOM responsible for?

The OFice of COMunication (OFCOM) is responsible for regulating television, radio, telephone services and some aspects of the internet, although the areas most relevent to media students are TV and radio.
There are some areas that are not the responsibility of OFCOM, such as TV Advertising which is regulated by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) and On Demand services which are regulated by the Authority for Television On Demand. (ATVOD). OFCOM is responsible for granting licences to TV and Radio stations
and it is illegal to broadcast TV or Radio signals without a licence from OFCOM. Before the development of digital broadcasting technologies, it was only possible to have 4 or 5 TV stations broadcasting at the
same time before the signals would begin to interfere with each other. A similar situation applied for radio stations too. For this reason, a system of licences was developed to ensure that the number of
channels/stations was limited to ensure all the signals could be picked up clearly. It also allows for some controls to be placed on quality and impartiality. In the past when there were only a handful of TV stations,
it was important that TV news and current affairs was balanced and not biased towards any particular political party as alternative views would have difficulty being heard.

3) Look at the section on the OFCOM broadcasting code. Which do you think are the three most important sections of the broadcasting code and why?

Section 6: Elections and Referendums
Section 5: Impartiality and Undue Prominence of Views and
Opinions
Section 9: Commercial References in Television Programming

4) Do you agree with OFCOM that Channel 4 was wrong to broadcast 'Wolverine' at 6.55pm on a Sunday evening? Why?

No, as it is not an outwardly violent or explicit movie. 6:55pm is also a time where you would expect parents to be putting their young children to sleep. Children should also be encouraged to know when something may upset them and that they can stop watching at any time.

5) List five of the sections in the old Press Complaints Commission's Code of Practice. 

Section 1: Accuracy
Section 2: Opportunity to Reply
Section 3: Privacy*
Section 4: Harassment*
Section 5: Intrusion Into Grief and Shock
Section 6: Children*
Section 7: Children in Sex Cases*
Section 8: Hospitales*
Section 9: Reporting of Crime*
Section 10: Clandestine Devices and Subterfuge*
Section 11: Victimes of Sexual Assault
Section 12: Discrimination
Section 13: Financial Journalism
Section 14: Confidential Sources
Section 15: Witness Payments in Criminal Trials

6) Why was the Press Complaints Commission criticised?

In recent years, the PCC became the focus of a great deal of controversy. It’s critics claim that the lack of
statutory powers means that when a newspaper has been found to breah the rules, the best a victim can hope for is an apology, which often does not get sufficient prominence in the paper. Critics also argue that many newspapers seem to fly in the face of the rules on a pretty regular basis and that very little is done to stop them. It’s defenders point out that a free press is a vital part of a functioning democracy. If statutory rules were imposed, newspapers ability to hold politicians and other people in power to account would be greatly diminished. on Sunday 28th September, 2014, The Sunday Mirror published a story revealing that the Conservative MP Brooks Newmark had sent explicit pictures to a woman that he believed was a public relations professional. By exposing such behaviour in a politician, The Sunday Mirror can claim to have performed a public service. Statutory rules about subterfuge and intrusions into people’s private lives might have prevented such a story from being put together Victims of press intrusion also gave evidence, including Hugh Grant and Charlotte Church who gave details about how they felt the press had been able to intrude on their personal lives to an unacceptable extent. At the end of the enquiry, it was recommended that the PCC be replaced with a new body with more power to bring the press into line. 

7) What was the Leveson enquiry and why was it set up?

The Leveson inquiry was a judicial public inquiry into the culture, practices and ethics of the British press following the News International phone hacking scandal, chaired by Lord Justice Leveson, who was appointed in July 2011.

8) What was the PCC replaced with in 2014?

On 8th September 2014, the PCC was replaced by the Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO). This new body (like the PCC) has been set up by the newspaper industry itself and it’s code of practice is essentially the same as the code administered by the PCC. This has led to criticism that the new body is effectively the PCC under a different name.

9) What is your opinion on press regulation? Is a free press an important part of living in a democracy or should newspapers face statutory regulation like TV and radio?

I think that the press should be regulated in terms of not being able to publish opinions stated as fact; slander against people without evidence and releasing private/explicit messages or material.

10) Why is the internet so difficult to regulate?

The internet is global with a lot of different layers being used on a large scale.

Public Service Regulation

Ofcom report

Read the first few pages of this Ofcom report into Public Service Broadcasting in 2017.

1) How does the report suggest that TV viewing is changing?

The television landscape is changing; people are increasingly viewing content in a variety of different ways, both on the television set and on other devices. Young adults are watching a substantial amount of non-PSB content, and behavioural changes are happening not just in this group, but among those up to the age of 45. Despite the changes in the ways in which people watch television, overall viewing on the TV set is resilient; each week 85% of people in the UK who have a TV in their household watch PSB channels. Public service broadcasters remain at the heart of the UK’s television viewing experience.

2) What differences are highlighted between younger and older viewers?

Individuals in the UK watched 3 hours 32 minutes of measured broadcast TV on a TV set in 2016. This is 4 minutes a day (2%) less than in 2015. However, there are big differences between age groups, and these gaps are widening. Viewers aged 65+ watched an average of 5 hours 44 minutes in 2016, just three minutes less than in 2012; in contrast, 16-24 year olds watched an average of 1 hour 54 minutes in 2016, 43 minutes less than in 2012. Between 2015 and 2016, average daily viewing among children and 16-24 year olds each fell by 10 minutes, whereas viewing by over-64s increased by 2 minutes. 

3) Does the report suggest audiences are satisfied with public service broadcasting TV channels?

It suggests that audiences are more satisfied with online broadcasting than traditional TV prgramming.

4) Public service broadcasting channels are a major aspect of the UK cultural industries. How much money did PSB channels spend on UK-originated content in 2016? 

The PSB channels spent a total of £2.6bn on first-run UK-originated content in 2016, a 2% increase in real terms on 2014 (the most recent comparable year due to the impact of major sporting events). This was an 18% decrease in real terms on 2006, with each of the main five PSB channels reducing their spend over the intervening period. At £582m, spend on new UK factual programming across the PSB channels was greater than any other genre in 2016. Spend on new UK content at peak time stood at £1.6bn in 2016. 

Goldsmiths report

Read this report from Goldsmiths University - A future for public service television: content and platforms in a digital world.

1) What does the report state has changed in the UK television market in the last 20 years?

A new fund for public service content Television with the characteristics of public service broadcasting
now appears outside the public service system: from Sky and other commercial broadcasters, on subscription video-on-demand services such as Netflix and Amazon, and through the new Local TV services. Meanwhile, a
broad range of cultural institutions – including museums, performing arts institutions and community
organisations – are now producing video content of public service character. We believe that the growing contribution to a digital media ecology made by these cultural institutions should be boosted by a specific public intervention. 

2) Look at page 4. What are the principles that the report suggests need to be embedded in regulation of public service broadcasting in future?

1. In return for public service broadcasters meeting the obligations of their licences, their content should be guaranteed prominence on electronic programme guides, smart TVs and on the interfaces of on-demand players as they emerge.

 2. Retransmission fees should be paid by pay-TV platforms to public service television operators to address the current undervaluation of public service content by these distributors.

 3. Ofcom should supplement its occasional reviews of public service broadcasting with a regular qualitative audit of public service content in order to ensure that audiences are being served with high-quality and diverse programming. This should include detailed data on the representation and employment of minority groups and a comprehensive account of the changing consumption patterns of younger audiences.

 4. Ofcom should continue to monitor the independent production sector and take action, where necessary, if consolidation continues to increase and if diversity of supply is affected.

3) What does the report say about the BBC?

The BBC The BBC is the most important part of the television ecology, but the model of universality underpinning its public service credentials is under threat. The BBC has been contracting in real terms and it is hard to sustain the case that it is damaging competitors. The licence fee is vulnerable in the face of changes in technology and consumption, and it is in any case far from an ideal system: it has failed to guarantee real independence and is charged at a flat rate. The BBC’s independence has also been compromised by the insecurity of its establishment by a royal charter and the process behind the appointments to its governing body. We support the inclusion of diversity as a specific public purpose for the BBC but strongly reject the abolition of the purpose focusing on the delivery of emerging communications technologies and services. We believe the BBC should be encouraged to pursue networked innovation, to embrace the internet and to develop a range of content and services for the online world. The BBC should continue to provide mixed programming and cater to all audiences as well as competing with other broadcasters to produce high quality programmes. The BBC needs to demonstrate further commitments to creative ambition and to address shortfalls in specific areas, for examples its services to BAME audiences, its relationships with audiences in the devolved nations, its institutional commitment to impartiality and its willingness to embrace new types of collaborative partnerships.

4) According to the report, how should the BBC be funded in future?

 The government should replace the licence fee as soon as is practically possible with a more progressive funding mechanism such as a tiered platform-neutral household fee, a supplement to Council Tax or funding via general taxation with appropriate parliamentary safeguards

5) What does the report say about Channel 4?

Channel 4 occupies a critical place in the public service ecology – supporting the independent production sector and airing content aimed specifically at diverse audiences. Its remit has remained flexible and it has moved with the times. But it has cut programme spending; it has largely abandoned arts programming and has been criticised for not doing enough for older children. Recently, Channel 4 has been threatened with privatisation, in whole or in part, a proposal that would threaten its public service remit.

6) How should Channel 4 operate in future?

0. Channel 4 should not be privatised – neither in full or in part – and we believe that the government should clarify its view on Channel 4’s future as soon as possible. 11. Channel 4 should significantly increase its provision for older children and young adults and restore some of the arts programming that has been in decline in recent years

7) Look at page 10 - new kids on the block. What does the report say about new digital content providers and their link to public service broadcasting?

Television with the characteristics of public service broadcasting now appears outside the public service system: from Sky and other commercial broadcasters, on subscription video-on-demand services such as Netflix and Amazon, and through the new Local TV services. Meanwhile, a broad range of cultural institutions – including museums, performing arts institutions and community organisations – are now producing video content of public service character. We believe that the growing contribution to a digital media ecology made by these cultural institutions should be boosted by a specific public intervention. 


Final questions - your opinion on public service broadcasting

1) Should the BBC retain its position as the UK’s public service broadcaster?

I think due to recent actions of doctoring footage of Boris Johnson and blatant political bias it should lose its position as the public service broadcaster; they need to be unbiased and report true, factual news
2) Is there a role for the BBC in the 21st century digital world?

I think there is still a role in the 21st century digital world for the BBC as it is important for there to still be a news source in the events of an internet breakdown or something of the sorts.
3) Should the BBC funding model (license fee) change? How?

I do not think it should change and people collectively paying for it makes it able to be free to the elderly and others who cannot pay it.

The Cultural Industries

1) What does the term 'Cultural Industries' actually refer to?

Cultural industries refers to the creation, production and sitribution of products of  cultural or artistic nature.

2) What does Hesmondhalgh identify regarding the societies in which the cultural industries are highly profitable?

Hesmondhalgh indentifies that the societies typically encourage providing the means for cultural industries to become increasingly successful and profitable, due to a public demand for new technology and media content etc, with society becoming more desensitised to explicit media as it becomes more acceptable for such content to be produced, especially as such content has become more profitable in the new digital age.  


3) Why do some media products offer ideologies that challenge capitalism or inequalities in society?

Some media products offer ideologies that challenge capitalism or inequalities in society as media is now less regulated, as more challenging ideologies have become more publicly accepted due to increasing free press, allowing more alternative views which have increased especially in recent years as media has become more socially correct, offering alternative views of things such as the media released in the 70s, which would mock certain topics, whereas nowadays the media would be used to educate the public on the topic rather than mock.


4) Look at page 2 of the factsheet. What are the problems that Hesmondhalgh identifies with regards to the cultural industries?

• Risky business
• Creativity versus commerce
• High production costs and low reproduction costs
• semi- public goods; the need to create scarcity 

5) Why are so many cultural industries a 'risky business' for the companies involved?

Cultural industries are risky businesses for companies involved due to the fact that audiences use cultural commodities in highly volatile and unpredictable ways, in addition to risks stemming from consumption, worsened by limited autonomy and the cultural industry company being reliant on other culture industry companies to make audiences aware of the existence of a new product and promotion of the product. 

6) What is your opinion on the creativity v commerce debate? Should the media be all about profit or are media products a form of artistic expression that play an important role in society?

I personally believe that media products should be a form of artistic expression as not only does it ensure high quality media being produced, but also allows creators to express themselves and their views in an art form they are passionate about, rather than creating a cliched media form with the sole purpose of profit. While profit plays a large part in creating any media, it shouldn't be the main motivator.

7) How do cultural industry companies minimise their risks and maximise their profits? (Clue: your work on Industries - Ownership and control will help here) 

Industry companies minimise their risks and maximise their profits through conglomerate ownership, diversification and integration. Industry companies buying their competition reduces risks of competitive industries and also makes it harder for smaller industries to compete and will likely eventually fail. Companies also expand and diversify so they don't have to outsource certain aspects of a media product and can maximise profit through internally producing it.

8) Do you agree that the way the cultural industries operate reflects the inequalities and injustices of wider society? Should the content creators, the creative minds behind media products, be better rewarded for their work?

Content creators should be better rewarded in some aspects, as the innovators and creative minds behind media aren't credited enough for the content they produce and are usually overshadowed by the publicly known personalities who receive the majority of the credit in many projects. However certain content creators are just as easily only in it for the profit, recycling ideas or using something that's easily marketable to draw in crowds, which shouldn't be as heavily rewarded.

9) Listen and read the transcript to the opening 9 minutes of the Freakonomics podcast - No Hollywood Ending for the Visual-Effects Industry. Why has the visual effects industry suffered despite the huge budgets for most Hollywood movies?

While the visual effects industry was originally widely appreciated as it first developed, in recent years it has become less of a marketing point in movies as it has become a normality in many films and the audiences have become less rewarding. Additionally the workers in visual effects aren't credited or paid much in relation to the job, as well as a rise in art house film seeing a declining need for visual effects.

10) What is commodification? 

Commodification is the action or process of treating something as a mere commodity (transformation of goods services, ideas and people into objects of trade).

11) Do you agree with the argument that while there are a huge number of media texts created, they fail to reflect the diversity of people or opinion in wider society?

I agree with the argument that media texts fail to reflect the diversity of people or opinion in wider society. While in recent years this has been somewhat changing, especially recently, with more black representation in movies and shows in recent years, and Asian culture being represented more on screen this year, along with developments beginning in representation of the lgbt community this year. However relating these strides being made to the majority of the films being produced, and back to real life, there are still major shortfalls. Taking the Marvel cinematic universe as an example, which according to business insider is the highest grossing film franchise of all time, there is a huge disparity in representation. The highest grossing film in the franchise, Avengers Assemble (2012), the ensemble cast is a majority of straight white men, featuring one white female, and one black man; after growing calls for further representation in this franchise, the filmmakers have actively been aiming for diversity in the later instalments, growing their original team of Avengers to include more women and people of colour. Although this then led to the release of 'Black Panther', a film with a leading black superhero accompanied by an army of black women, all of the relationships shown so far have been between men and women, with a lack of lgbt representation. While the cast of this franchise has become increasingly diverse, it still lacks in terms of properly representing the real world. This is also apparent in a number of successful franchises, with straight white men being cast as James Bond continuously, even today, and Doctor who having a straight white man cast as the doctor, with a lack of representation in companions as well; although the show is seeing change, with its first female doctor, and growing representation in minorities, and sexualities of companions, it is only now beginning to be more diverse, with it still failing to reflect the diversity of people or opinion in wider society.


12) How does Hesmondhalgh suggest the cultural industries have changed? Identify the three most significant developments and explain why you think they are the most important.

• Digitalisation, the internet and mobile phones have multiplied the ways audience can gain access to cultural content. This has made small scale production much easier for millions of people (think self-representation + prosumers). I find this significant because this has allowed growing competition for conglomerate media industries and has allowed more cultural content to be produced, such as the formation of streaming services like Netflix who are able to take bigger risks, being less well known, and are able to challenge the viewpoints put forward by larger companies.
• Powerful IT and technology companies now work with cultural industries to understand and produce cultural production & consumption. These companies (e.g. Apple, Microsoft, Google, Amazon) are now as powerful and influential in cultural industries as traditional companies such as News Corporation, Time Warner or Sony. I find this important as IT and Tech companies are arguably more accessible for audiences to show the type of content they want to be produced and are more in touch with their audiences through things such as social media, as traditional cultural industries are. This has allowed further representation in media of those from different backgrounds, ethnic minorities and sexualities.
• As cultural industries understand the growing role and influence of the audience there is greater emphasis on marketing and research. Cultural industries actively seek to find and address the niche audiences. This is important because it moves away from the production of media purely for profit, which results in the same cliches being used and reused, and instead allows new and innovative content to be produced with high value and cultural impact, targeted at specific demographics and psychographics.

Industries: Ownership and Control

1) Type up your research notes from the lesson - what did you find out about your allocated media conglomerate? Selection of companies: Alphabet, The Walt Disney Company, Comcast, 21st Century Fox, Facebook, Viacom, News Corp, Time Warner. If you were absent or don't have the notes, research any of the companies above and find examples of all the terminology outlined in the notes at the start of this blogpost.

Conglomerate ownership - a conglomerate is a large company composed of a number of smaller companies (subsidiaries).A media conglomerate, or media group, is a company that owns numerous companies involved in creating mass media products such as print, television, radio, movies or online.

Vertical integration- Vertical integration is when a media company owns a range of businesses in the same chain of production and distribution. For example, a company might own the film studio that makes a film, the distributors that sell it to cinemas and then the movie channel that premieres it on TV.

Vertical integration allows companies to reduce costs and increase profits – but it is not always successful if the parent company lacks expertise in certain areas.

Horizontal integration- Horizontal integration is when a media company owns a range of different media companies that are largely unrelated e.g. magazines, radio stations and television. Horizontal integration helps media institutions reach a wider audience.

Synergy- Synergy is the process through which a series of media products derived from the same text or institution is promoted in and through each other. Look for links or consistent branding across different media platforms and products. E.g. Harry Potter – films, merchandise, stage plays, theme parks, videogames etc.

Diversification- Diversification is when a media company branches out into a different area of the industry. For example, many media companies have had to diversify to internet-driven distribution (e.g. streaming) as a result of new and digital media. In the music industry, major labels such as Warner Music have had to embrace streaming in order to reverse years of declining revenue.

Cross-media regulation- When two companies wish to merge or diversify (e.g. vertical or horizontal integration) it needs to be cleared by a regulatory body to prevent any one company becoming too powerful in a given market. In the UK, this is decided by the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA). Currently, the CMA is deciding whether to allow Rupert Murdoch to complete an £11.7bn takeover of Sky by 21st Century Fox.

21st Century Fox

Owns Fox digital entertainment, National geographic channels, StarTv, TrueX, Holdings in Hulu

News into entertainment

Animation studios, television studios, film branches, fox news

proposed fox/sky merger

Ice age 'scratch' character appearing in other fox productions

2) Do you agree that governments should prevent media conglomerates from becoming too dominant? Write an argument that looks at both sides of this debate.

I agree that governments should prevent media conglomerates from becoming too dominant, as not only do these growing conglomerates eliminate any up and coming media services, but it also makes the media increasingly biased, especially within news. Certain conglomerate branches provide media which is moulded to fit the owner’s political and social views (i.e. Fox new/Cnn), putting out biased news and entertainment, providing an altered view on certain topics which should be stopped by governments, allowing active audiences to form their own opinions. However, it may be just as likely that governments preventing this can create the same result, only conforming to different leaders.

3) Briefly describe the production, promotion and distribution process for media companies.

Production - creating a form of media that satisfies audiences

Promotion - marketing a product to attract a target audience and generate interest

Distribution - using varying platforms to market and release the media form, using those typical to their target audience to ensure maximum profit.

4) What are the different funding models for media institutions?

Advertising (Disney media)

Sponsorship (Itv)

License fees (BBC)

Subscription fees (Netflix)

Sales of advertising space (Mail Online)

Sales of branded merchandise (Sony)

5) The article gives a lot of examples of major media brands and companies. Choose three examples from the article and summarise what the writer is saying about each of them.

BBC

Due to the BBC being funded by license fees, and having a public service remit (to inform, educate and entertain), it is more likely to screen regional based programmes (news broadcasts, regional documentaries). The BBC is reconsidering its funding to structure as on-demand viewing is becoming more popular.

Google

Google has bought many large companies, such as youtube, and has now changed the way the majority of the population accesses music, films, news etc.

Facebook

Facebook has bought other large social media apps, such as instagram and whatsapp, but has now expanded into buying virtual technology, such as the oculus rift, widening the services provided.

6) What examples are provided of the new business models media companies have had to adopt due 

to changes in technology and distribution?

The music industry no longer generates its profits through the sales of the music itself, so they now use sponsorship, advertising and income generated through live shows to create profit. Labels now have new contracts, ensuring they take in a percentage of all artist profits, through merchandise, live shows and any other income generated by the artist.

The BBC is reconsidering its funding to structure as on-demand viewing is becoming more popular.

The movie industry has invested hugely into 3D technology to ensure cinemas maintain audience numbers

Some online newspapers have developed subscription services to access articles, or provide premium content for those paying.

7) Re-read the section on 'The Future'. What examples are discussed of technology companies becoming major media institutions?

Google

Google now owns youtube, and has become the main worldwide website for accessing many different internet platforms, finding information and has revolutionised the way we access music and moving picture entertainment.

Streaming platforms

Amazon, Netflix and Yahoo now create, produce and broadcast their own media, which has become widely successful, such as Amazons 'The grand tour' and Netflix's 'Orange is the new black'.

Facebook

Facebook has invested into VR tech, the oculus rift, allowing viewers to attend and experience events without leaving their own homes.

8) Do you agree with the view that traditional media institutions are struggling to survive?

I agree that traditional media institutions are struggling to survive, as the digital age has made physical newspapers almost obsolete at this point, as all information that would typically be provided can now be found on other platforms for free and more convenient. The new digital age has also begun to wipe out traditional tv channels, as the same content can now be found easily online for free, and streaming services have begun to provide their own content amongst other content bought which can be viewed on demand, in contrast to typical tv broadcasting.

9) How might diversification or vertical integration help companies to survive and thrive in a rapidly changing media landscape?

Diversification or Vertical integration may help companies to survive and thrive in a changing media landscape as it would therefore allow one company to cover all bases required to produce one media product, rather than having to outsource certain aspects required for the production, which would see media companies losing profit, whereas diversification would see media companies making more profit and being able to take more risks with media production.

10) How do YOU see the relationship between audience and institution in the future? Will audiences gain increasing power or will the major global media conglomerates maintain their control?

Personally, I see the relationship between audience and institution reverting back to institution led production in the future. While traditional media sources used to be the only source of information, education or entertainment, the digital age saw a shift as alternative sources appeared and gave audiences some say in the content they wanted to see produced. While I believe this is going to continue to an extent, the new digital age has seen us become overly dependant on technology to the point where new generations wouldn't ‘survive’ without it. Audiences will gain further power over traditional media sources as they become obsolete, but in relation to newer streaming services and such new generations have become so dependant on these outlets that institutions such as Netflix and Amazon are likely to see them gaining power over audiences once again.

Audience Theory 2

1) Social learning theory has been criticised for simplifying the causes of violence in society. Do you think the media is responsible for anti-social behaviour and violence?

I think that the media is only slightly responsible for the anti-social behaviour and violence as whilst young people may be inspired by some parts of media, It is ultimately their caregiver's responsibility to ensure that they know that the media pieces are fiction and shouldn't be recreated. Their is also a larger amount of people who consume the same media projects and don't become violent.

2) How is social learning theory relevant in the digital age? Are young people now learning behaviour from social media and the internet? Give examples.

Young people are learning their behaviours from the media as they are heavily exposed to it more than older people who do not really feel as comfortable with social media as young people. They could be easily influenced from social media posts from politicians,Actors and other public figures.

3) Research three examples of moral panic from the last 50 years. To what extent was the media responsible for these moral panics? Was the concern in society justified? How have things changed as a result of these moral panics?

Widespread abduction of children in the media, the media posts a large volume of kidnappings which makes people believe that lots of children are constantly going missing.

Bath salts- after a homeless man had his face chewed off, the press immediately blamed the fact that the perpetrator allegedly ingested bath salts and called for them to be banned.

4) Read this introduction to an academic paper on technopanics. What examples are given of technopanics that create fear in society?

These panics are intense public, political, and academic responses to the emergence oruse of media or technologies

5) Do you think the internet should be regulated? Should the government try and control what we can access online?

I believe that the internet should be semi-regulated, with websites selling weapons and drugs etc. I believe that we should be free to access other websites.

6) Apply Gerbner's cultivation theory to new and digital media. Is the internet creating a fearful population? Are we becoming desensitised to online threats, trolling and abuse? Is heavy internet use something we should be worried about in society? Write a paragraph discussing these ideas.

I believe that the internet is creating a fearful population as the constant reports of violence make people believe that these crimes are happening at a higher frequency than they actually are.




1) Complete the questions in the first activity box (beginning with 'Do you play violent games? Are you violent in real life?')

1. Do you play violent video games and/or watch violent films? Yes.  Are you violent in ‘real life’? Not particularly
2. Do you ever see a product advertised on TV or on the internet and decide you want to buy it? yes
3. Have you ever seen a documentary which has drawn your attention to an issue which you now feel strongly about? yes

2) What are the four categories for different effects theories?

• Direct Effect Theories
• Diffusion Theories
• Indirect Effect Theories
• The Pluralist Approach

3) What are the examples provided for the hypodermic needle theory - where media texts have been blamed for certain events? 

• Child’s Play – The murder of Jamie Bulger
• Marilyn Manson – The Columbine High School shootings
• Natural Born Killers – a number of murders committed by
romantically linked couples. in one case, the director was sued

for inciting violence although the court case was later dismissed

4) What was the 1999 Columbine massacre? You may need to research this online in addition to the information on the factsheet.

It was a school shooting carried out by two students.

5) What are the reasons listed on the factsheet to possibly explain the Columbine High School massacre?

1. The ease of access to firearms and the social acceptance of gun ownership.

2.The alienation felt by teenagers who felt as though they did not fit in.

3.The hopelessness caused by living in an area where unemployment was high and was economically disadvantaged.

4.The general desensitisation caused by access to a range of violent images: film, TV, the news, the internet. 

6) How does the factsheet describe Gerbner's Cultivation theory?

The media is seen as part of our socialisation
process, communicating ‘appropriate’ attitudes and the norms and
values of the culture. According to this theory, while any one
media text does not have too much effect, repeated exposure to
certain ideas and values may make the audience less critical of the
ideas presented as they appear ‘normal’.

7) What does the factsheet suggest about action films and the values and ideologies that are reinforced with regards to violence?

Things get more complicated when you consider this is all
down to perspective. Is it good if a villain kills someone to
protect his family? Is it acceptable to act violently if
someone threatens a state they think is corrupt? Is it alright
to steal from someone who has been violent towards you?
The repetition of the simple values above makes them
appear natural and the texts do not always encourage the
audience to question the values presented. Essentially
violence is supported in action films as a method for the
hero to reach his goal. The only difference between him
and the villain is that we agree with the hero’s motivations

8) What criticisms of direct effect theories are suggested in the factsheet?

This theory identifies the media as being a negative influence but
does not consider forms of ‘high art’ in the same way. Some of
Shakespeare’s plays are extremely violent but are not seen to be a
problem whereas games and television programmes are open to
criticism

9) Why might the 1970s sitcom Love Thy Neighbour be considered so controversial today? What does this tell us about Reception theory and how audiences create meanings?

Some texts from the past seem very strange to us. A very popular sitcom
in the 1970s called Love Thy Neighbour appears to many modern
viewers, racist and offensive. Times have changed and so have
people’s attitudes and values. What was acceptable as the topic for

comedy some decades ago, no longer is.

10) What examples are provided for Hall's theory of preferred, negotiated and oppositional readings?

• The same information can be presented (encoded) in different
ways
o The Sun and The Guardian may report the same ‘facts’ very
differently
• Even when media producers try to ‘close down’ meaning all
media texts contain more than one potential reading
o Media producers can never guarantee that all audience
members will interpret (decode) information in the same way
• External factors influence interpretation
o Audience members will have different experiences and
opinions and, therefore, interpret media texts differently